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| Wagler's pit viper, temple viper, temple pit viper |
Common names
Wagler's pit viper, temple viper, temple pit viper,bamboo snake, temple snake, speckled pit viper,temple pitviper.
Behavior
Nocturnal and arboreal, they appear quite sluggish as they remaining motionless for long periods of time waiting for prey to pass by. When prey does pass by, or if disturbed, they can strike quickly.
Venom
Their venom is a strong hemotoxin, and is potentially fatal to humans.
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| King Cobra |
Venom
The venom of the king cobra consists primarily of neurotoxins, but it also contains cardiotoxic and some other compounds. Toxic constituents are mainly proteins and polypeptides. During a bite, venom is forced through the snake's 1.25 to 1.5 centimeters (0.49 to 0.59 in) fangs into the wound, and the toxins begin to attack the victim's central nervous system. Symptoms may include severe pain, blurred vision, vertigo, drowsiness, and paralysis. Envenomation progresses to cardiovascular collapse, and the victim falls into a coma. Death soon follows due to respiratory failure. Moreover, king cobra envenomation is clinically known to cause renal failure.
A 1990 book makes a passing statement of a LD50 of 0.34 mg/kg for this species, however this value is inconsistent with most toxicological studies. For example, a recent study lists the LD50 of the king cobra venom as 1.6 mg/kg – 1.8 mg/kg, making its venom one of the least potent among the elapids. This value is further backed up by another toxicological study which lists the IV LD50 of the king cobra at 1.7 mg/kg. A similar mean LD50 value of 1.93 mg/kg was obtained from the venom of five wild caught king cobras in Southeast Asia (Meier et al. 1995). Engelmann listed the IV LD50 at 0.9 mg/kg. This species is capable of delivering a large quantity of venom, injecting a dose anywhere from 200-500 milligrams on average and can up to 7ml. Engelmann and Obst (1981) list the average venom yield at 420 mg (dry weight). Though the venom is weak compared to most other elapids based upon the LD50 in mice, it can still deliver a bite which can potentially kill a human due to the massive amount of venom it delivers in a single bite. Mortality can vary sharply with amount of venom involved, most bites involve nonfatal amounts. According to a research report from the University of Adelaide Department of Toxinology, an untreated bite has a mortality rate of 50-60% Depending on many factors, especially in cases of very severe envenomation, death can occur as early as 30 minutes after being bitten by this species but this is exceptionally rare as most untreated bite victims in Asia live through their bites, usually because the vast majority of bites involve non-fatal amounts of venom.
There are two types of antivenom made specifically to treat king cobra envenomations. The Red Cross in Thailand manufactures one, and the Central Research Institute in India manufactures the other; however, both are made in small quantities and are not widely available. Ohanin, a protein component of the venom, causes hypolocomotion and hyperalgesia in mammals. Other components have cardiotoxic, cytotoxic and neurotoxic effects. In Thailand, a concoction of alcohol and the ground root of turmeric is ingested, which has been clinically shown to create a strong resilience against the venom of the king cobra, and other snakes with neurotoxic venom.
The haditoxin in the king cobra venom was discovered by Singaporean scientists to be structurally unique and can have unique pharmacological properties. Biochemical studies confirmed that it existed as a non-covalent dimer species in solution. Its structural similarity to short-chain α-neurotoxins and κ-neurotoxins notwithstanding, haditoxin exhibited unique blockade of α7-nAChRs (IC50 180 nM), which is recognized by neither short-chain α-neurotoxins nor κ-neurotoxins.
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| Gold-Ringed Cat Snake (Boiga dendrophila) |
The gold-ringed cat snake or mangrove snake (Boiga dendrophila) is a species of rear-fanged colubrid. It is one of the biggest cat snake species, averaging 6-8 feet (1.8-2.4 m) in length. It is considered mildy-venomous, but moderate envenomations resulting in intense swelling have been reported, though there have been no severe cases of hospitalisation or fatalities.
Distribution
Indonesia (Bangka, Belitung, Borneo, Java, Sulawesi, Riau Archipelago, Sumatra), India, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, Philippine Islands (Panay).
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| Conus Geographus |
Conus geographus has a broad, thin shell, cylindrically inflated. Geography cones grow to about 4 inches (10 cm) to 6 inches (15 cm) in length. The size of an adult shell varies between 43 mm and 166 mm. The ground color of the shell is pink or violaceous white, occasionally reddish. It has a mottled appearance, clouded and coarsely reticulated with chestnut or chocolate, usually forming two very irregular bands. This intricately brown-and-white pattern is highly prized by shell collectors.
The geography cone has a wide, violaceous white or pink aperture and numerous shoulder ridges or spines. The shell is covered with thread-like revolving striae, usually nearly obsolete except at the base. The flattened spire is striated and coronated.
In comparison with other species, the shell has a noticeably wider and convex mid-body, with a flattened spire. Its walls are also noticeably thinner and lighter compared to other cone shells of similar length and size.
Venom
Conus geographus is highly dangerous - live specimens should be handled with extreme caution. Conus geographus has the most toxic sting known among Conus species and is responsible for more than thirty human fatalities. Their venom, a complex of hundreds of different toxins, is delivered through a harpoon-like tooth propelled from an extendable proboscis. There is no antivenom for a cone snail sting, and treatment is limited to merely keeping victims alive until the toxins wear off.
Among the compounds found in cone snail venom are proteins which, when isolated, have enormous potential as pain-killing drugs. Research shows that certain of these proteins target specific human pain receptors and can be up to 10,000 times more potent than morphine without morphine's addictive properties and side-effects.
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| Conus textile |
Conus textile, common name the cloth of gold cone is a venomous species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Conidae, the cone snails, cone shells or cones.
Like all species within the genus Conus, these snails are predatory and venomous. They are capable of "stinging" humans, therefore live ones should be handled carefully or not at all. The conotoxin of this species is extremely dangerous to humans.
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| Spine-bellied Sea snake, or Hardwicke's Spine-bellied Sea snake, (Lapemis hardwickii) |
Body short, stout, neck region not less than half as thick at midbody;
head large; scales squarish or hexagonal, juxtaposed, outer 3-4 rows larger than others, scale rows: males 23-31 around neck, females 27-35, around midbody, males 25-27, females 33-41;
ventrals small, usually distinct anteriorly, not so posteriorly, in males 114-186, in females 141-230; head shields entire, parietals occasionally divided;
nostrils superior, nasals in contact with one another;
prefrontal usually in contact with second upper labial;
7-8 upper labials, 3-4 bordering eye; 1 pre- and 1-2 postoculars; 2, rarely 3, anterior temporals; greenish or yellow- olive above, whitish below, 35-50 olive to dark gray dorsal bars, tapering to a point laterally, occasionally encircling body, a narrow dark ventral stripe or broad irregular band occasionally present;
adults often lack any pattern and are uniform olive to dark gray;
head pale olive to black, yellow markings on snout present or not. Total length 860 mm (2' 4"), tail length 85 mm (3.3").
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| colubrine sea krait, banded sea krait or yellow-lipped sea krait (Laticauda colubrina), native in the Philippines called this one Walo-Walo/Tigwao/Sigwao |
The colubrine sea krait, banded sea krait or yellow-lipped sea krait (Laticauda colubrina) is a species of sea snake found in tropical Indo-Pacific oceanic waters.
Observation and nesting
Banded sea kraits rest and nest on rocky headlands and beaches of Sabah, Borneo. They can be seen in the wild at Pulau Tiga, the tip of Borneo and Mabul island. They are, however, seen on a many other rocky headlands around Sabah that are harder to access. Occasionally they come ashore at Tanjung aru close to Kota Kinabalu. They can be seen in captivity at The Green Connection, an aquarium in Kota KInabalu. The males come ashore early in the evening and wait at the high tide line for the females. Females are much larger and many males will escort and intertwine around a single female. They are also seen on Kadavu Island in Fiji and can often be found in the shallows whilst snorkelling. A specimen identified as a banded sea krait was seen on a small island off Padre Burgos, Luzon, Philippines, in November 2010. Locals familiar with the island say the snakes are most frequently found in crevices in the rock by day and roaming the beach and nearby waters after dark. This kind of snake has been seen also in beach in island of Boracay, Philippines.
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| black-banded sea krait |
The black-banded sea krait, Laticauda semifasciata, known in Japan as erabu umi hebi, and Okinawa as the irabu, is a member of the Laticauda genus of sea snakes. It is found in most of the warm waters of the western Pacific Ocean.
This venomous snake frequents coral reef areas. It has a short head, thick trunk, and no neck to speak of. The tail is simply extended skin, spread wide like a fin, and unsupported by any projection. The stomach is comparatively wide. Massing together near the shore, they breed between narrow cracks in the reef and in caves. It is a nocturnal snake that is rarely seen during the day. It requires oxygen to breathe and so breaks the surface every six hours.
They are too slow to catch fish in a straight chase, so they hunt for fish hiding in the coral. Their bite is highly venomous and paralyzes their prey. They lay their eggs on land. Generally found in Fiji, Southern Japan and Singapore their venom is ten times stronger than that of a cobra, making them extremely dangerous. Fortunately, this snake does not bite humans unless it feels threatened.
The erabu snake is a winter staple in southern Japan where it is believed to replenish a female's womanhood. Irabu soup irabu-jiru is said to taste like miso and a bit like tuna. This soup was a royal court cuisine of Ryukyu Kingdom with analeptic properties.
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| Philippine cobra (Naja philippinensis) |
Habitat
Philippine cobra’s habitat include low-lying plains and forested regions, along with open fields, grasslands, dense jungle, agricultural fields, and human settlements. This species of cobra is particularly fond of water and it can always be found very close to ponds, rivers, or large puddles of water.
Predators
Predators of this species of cobra include humans, birds of prey, the King cobra, and the mongoose. Large rats that have been bitten by this snake and are in a position to fight back, often do so. Although rare, large rats have been known to fatally wound the snake by scratching, biting, or even poking one or both of the snakes eyes out. Of course, the rat ends up succumbing to the venom, but the snake will often sustain injury to one or both eyes, potentially becoming blind, and severe bites to the snout region leave the snake vulnerable to all sorts of infections and diseases.
Venom
The venom of the Philippine cobra is a potent postsynaptic neurotoxin which affects respiratory function and can cause neurotoxicity and respiratory paralysis, as the neurotoxins interrupt the transmission of nerve signals by binding to the neuro-muscular junctions near the muscles. Research done on the venom of this species has shown that its venom is purely a neurotoxin, with no apparent necrotizing components and no cardiotoxins. They are capable of accurately spitting their venom at a target that is up to 3 metres (9.8 ft) away from where they are. The symptoms of a bite might include headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, dizziness, and difficulty breathing. Bites by the Philippine cobra produce prominent neurotoxicity with minimal to no local signs. A study of 39 patients envenomed by the Philippine cobra (Naja philippinensis) was conducted in 1988. Neurotoxicity occurred in 38 cases and was the predominant clinical feature. Respiratory paralysis developed in 19 patients, and was often rapid in onset-in 3 cases apnea occurred within 30 minutes of the bite. There were 2 deaths, both in patients who were moribund upon arrival at the hospital. Three patients developed necrosis, and 14 individuals with systemic symptoms had no local swelling at all. Both cardiotoxicity and reliable nonspecific signs of envenoming were absent. Bites by the Philippine cobra produce a distinctive clinical picture characterized by severe neurotoxicity of rapid onset and minimal local tissue damage.
Although venom toxicity values can vary greatly even among specimens of the same species, the Philippine cobra has the most toxic venom among all of the Naja (cobra) species according to all known toxicological studies which give the species a value, thus making it the most venomous cobra species in the world. The subcutaneous LD50 for this species is 0.20 mg/kg and the average venom yield per bite is 90–100 mg (with a maximum yield of 250 mg).[10] In comparison, the corresponding SC LD50 for Naja naja (Indian cobra) venom is 0.45 mg/kg according to Dr. Bryan Grieg Fry. SC LD50 values for other cobra's include 1.15 mg/kg for Naja haje (Egyptian cobra), 2 mg/kg for Naja nigricollis (Black-necked spitting cobra), 0.72 mg/kg for Naja nivea (Cape cobra), and 0.53 mg/kg for Naja atra (Chinese cobra).
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| Equatorial spitting cobra (Naja sumatrana) also called the Golden spitting cobra or Sumatran spitting cobra |
Description
This species is medium in length, averaging between 0.9 to 1.2 metres (3.0 to 3.9 ft) in length, though they can grow a bit longer to 1.5 metres (4.9 ft). The body is compressed dorsoventrally and sub-cylindrical posteriorly. The head of this species is elliptical, depressed, and slightly distinct from the neck with a short, rounded snout and large nostrils. Eyes are medium in size with round pupils. Dorsal scales are smooth and strongly oblique. This species of cobra has no hood marks and colouration varies based upon geographical location. There are two colour phases: a yellow form commonly found in Thailand, and a black form found in Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, and the islands where it occurs in Indonesia and the Philippines. Juveniles and adults also tend to be of different colour.
Distribution
This species of cobra is found in the equatorial Southeast Asian nations of Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, and in the Philippines. In Indonesia it occurs in the islands of Sumatra, Borneo, Bangka, Belitung, and the Riau Archipelago. It may occur in neighboring islands in Indonesia. It is possible that remnant populations still occur in western Java. In the Philippines it can be found only in the island province of Palawan.
Venom
Like other cobra species, this snake possess postsynaptic neurotoxic venom. The venom may also consist of cardiotoxins and cytotoxins. The venom of the Equatorial spitting cobra exhibited the common characteristic enzymatic activities of Asiatic spitting cobra venoms: low protease, phosphodiesterase, alkaline phosphomonoesterase and L-amino-acid oxidase activities, moderately high acetylcholinesterase and hyaluronidase activities and high phospholipase A2. Cardiotoxins represented 40% of the snakes venom protein. This species presented an IV LD50 of 0.50 µg/g mouse.
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| Pelamis platura, commonly known as the yellow-bellied sea snake |
Habits
These snakes breed in warm waters, and they are ovoviviparous with a gestation period of about 6 months. According to Ditmars, females bear live young in tidal pools. They are helpless on land, and they sometimes form large aggregations of thousands in surface waters. These snakes have a neurotoxic venom that is used against their fish prey. No human fatalities are known.
Venom
The venom of this species is highly potent, like other sea snakes. In Australia, sea snakes are rarely aggressive and bites are uncommon. The subcutaneous LD50 of the venom is 0.067 mg/kg (0.07 mg/kg) and the venom yield per bite is 1.0–4.0 mg/kg.
Antivenom
Sea snake venom can cause damage to skeletal muscle with consequent myoglobinuria, neuromuscular paralysis or direct renal damage. The venoms of significant species of sea snake are neutralised with Commonwealth Serum Laboratories Ltd (of Melbourne, Australia) Sea Snake (Enhydrina schistosa) antivenom. If that preparation is not available, Tiger Snake or polyvalent antivenom should be used. No deaths have been recorded from bites in Australian waters. The (Enhydrina schistosa) antivenom was tested specifically on Pelamus platurus and it effectively neutralised the venom.
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| Red Lionfish (Pterois volitans) Image Source: http://www.reefguide.org |
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| Rhabdophis |
(Limited Information)
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